D.1 Introduction

This bibliography is a work in process identifying prominent authors who have addressed environmental security and conflict on theoretical and/or empirical levels, and those leaders in the field who have authored seminal works on redefining national security. The bibliography attempts to be selective, while providing key citations for each of the major schools of thoughts. Further research is underway to identify other important resources, such as case studies, conference reports, and relevant sections of legal conventions.
 

D.1 is organized in the following sections:

1. General

2. Environmental Scarcity Model

3. Economic Development and Modernization Model

4. Spillover Model

5. Sectoral Linkages Model

6. Leading Edge Model
 

D.2 Is an environmental security bibliography used in a review on the security dimension of

the environment by Renat Perelet (June 1998)
 

D.3 Additional References identified during literature survey for initial or trial definitions
 

D.4 Recent Conferences related to Environmental Security
 

Appendix D.1

GENERAL

Brown, Lester. "Redefining Security." Worldwatch Paper No. 14, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC., 1977. Argues that the conventional definition of national security should be expanded to include environmental threats resulting from resource scarcity and overpopulation. Examines five major areas of environmental security: energy, biological systems, climate modification, food insecurity, and economic threats to security. First, asserts that world oil production cannot keep pace with consumption and that the world's oil reserves will be depleted within fifteen years (i.e., by 1992) given the trends of the time. Second, claims that pressures on the earth's principle biological systems -- oceanic fisheries, grasslands, forests, and croplands - are mounting as a result of population growth. Argues that preserving these biological systems will require constraints on global consumption. Third, asserts that increasing amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are promoting a "greenhouse effect" that will raise the earth's temperature, causing a variety of ecological problems (rising sea levels, crop failure, etc.). Fourth, looks at several famines of the 1970s, including famines in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and India, in the context of linking third-world overpopulation to growing food insecurity. Fifth, examines the impact of economic stresses such as inflation and unemployment on domestic and international instability.
 

Byres, Bruce. "Ecoregions, State Sovereignty, and Conflict." Bulletin of Peace Proposals 22:1 (1991): pp.65-76. Argues that the frequent incongruity between political and ecological boundaries has the potential to stimulate conflict and that mapping such incongruities can be a tool for predicting conflicts in time for preventive action. Further argues that preventing ecologically rooted conflicts requires some modification of state sovereignty. Posits two basic kinds of incongruities: (1) cases where two or more states share a single ecoregion, and (2) cases where single states occupy more than one ecoregion. In both cases, asserts that conflict is stimulated because of the association between ecoregions and ethnic groups. Ethnic groups tied to ecoregions often do not have sovereignty over the territory they occupy, a situation which can exacerbate conflict. Using this logic, predicts that environmental conflict will occur (a) where ecogeographical and state boundaries do not coincide, and (b) in regions where resources can no longer support the population level. Concludes that state sovereignty should be modified, though not abandoned, in order to recognize ecogeographical realities.
 

Holst, Johan J, "Security and the Environment: A Preliminary Exploration." Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol 20(2) 123-128 (1989). Holst identifies three dimensions of the relationship between armed conflict and environmental deterioration; (1) environmental degradation as a consequence of armed conflict, (2) degradation as a cause of armed struggle (environmental collapse leading to famine, migration, and rebellion) and (3) environmental degradation as a contribution to armed conflict (using changes to the environment as a weapon). The third dimension, environmental manipulation as a means of waging warfare, can be employed in space, the atmosphere, the lithosphere (the land), the hydrosphere (oceans), and the biosphere. Nuclear war would cause the most dramatic manipulation and Holst emphasizes both the danger of attempting to "win" a nuclear exchange and the realization that no area would be safe from environmental harm. Deforestation is a direct consequence of population growth and together they create environmental refugees with increasing frequency. This process of degradation is self-reinforcing, but can best be contained by international management of shared and common resources.
 

Homer-Dixon, Thomas. "Strategies for Studying Causation in Complex Ecological Political Systems." Occasional Paper of the Project on Environment, Population, and Security, University of Toronto and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, June 1995. Examines different methodological approaches to testing hypotheses of causal links between environmental scarcity and social conflict. Identifies two ways of thinking about whether and how environmental scarcity contributes to conflict: the rational actor approach, which examines how scarcity influences decision makers, and the causal relationship approach, which focuses on the nature of the hypothesized relationship between the cause (environmental scarcity) and its effect (social conflict). Argues that, especially in early stages of research, researchers would be best served by empirically testing cases along both the independent and the dependent variable (i.e., examining cases where both environmental scarcity and social conflict are present). This method enables researchers to determine if the independent and dependent variables are linked, and if they are, to induce patterns of causality and locate the key intermediate variables that characterize the links. Asserts that more traditional approaches to hypothesis testing, such as correlational analysis and controlled-case comparisons, are not adequate for grasping the complexity of the relationship between environmental scarcity and social conflict, especially in the early stages of research.
 

____________. "Population Growth and Conflict." Paper presented at American Academy for the Advancement of Science Annual Symposium, 9 February 1992. Focuses on the relationship between population growth and conflict. Introduces six causal models describing this relationship: 1) Overflow Model states that when an area becomes overpopulated, people spill out, causing conflict. Homer-Dixon calls this model too simplistic; 2) Lateral Pressure Model describes causal relationship between population and international conflict using four variables -- population, level of technological development, domestic resource availability, external resource availability; 3) Differential Growth Model explains how domestic conflict can be caused by population growth. Uses example of one ethnic group in a country reproducing faster than another group, leading to conflict (e.g., Palestinians and Israelis); 4) Environmental Change Model suggests population multiplied by per capita use of the range of technologies available in the society produces certain environmental and social effects, and perhaps conflict; 5) Resource Competition Model adds to model four the idea that population growth and inequitable distribution of resources can directly cause competition over resources which can lead to conflict; 6) State Capacity Factors Model applies to early modern states. Argues that rapid population growth drains state resources, leads to competition among elites for power, contributes to breakdown of state structures, all of which cause conflict.
 

Libiszewski, Stephan. "What is an Environmental Conflict?" Occasional Paper No. 1, Environment and Conflicts Project, Swiss Peace Foundation, Berne, and Center for Security Studies and Conflict Research, Zurich, Switzerland, July 1992.  Defines the term environmental in the context of conflict research and illustrates how the causal likage between ecology and the environment should be seen. Distinguishes between renewable and non-renewable resources and the types of scarcity. Defines conflict and the environmental origins of conflict. Concludes with the definition of environmental conflicts as those induced by an environmental degradation involving the overuse of renewable resources, overstrain of the environment's sink capacity, and the impoverishment of the space for living.
 

Mathews, Jessica Tuchman. "Redefining Security." Foreign Affairs 68 (Spring 1989): pp. 162-77. Argues that a new concept of "security" is needed, one that recognizes that environmental decline can occasionally lead directly to conflict. Contends that rapid population growth is the main catalyst for environmental instability and the social instability which follows. Downward pull on economic performance from environmental degradation and population pressures leads to frustration, resentment, domestic unrest, and in extreme cases, civil war, making environmental causes an "essential factor" in conflict. Most serious threats from deforestation in tropics, desertification, and patterns of land tenure. Cites deforestation and fish stock depletion in Philippines, sub-Saharan African deforestation. Reviews projected global environmental situation in 2050, and recommends: a) new methods for valuing national income accounts to reflect resource depletio, b) indicators by which global health can be measured; c) new tools for development assistance, including increasing roles for NGOs; and d) emphasis on multilateral diplomacy, including new ways to negotiate successfully, and a key role for private sector.
 

Porter, Gareth. "Environmental Security as a National Security Issue," Current History 94:21 (May 1995). Presents Environmental Security issues as a new and vital element of National Security that will redefine traditional policies. Examines environmental degradation as a potential cause of violent conflict that can be avoided only through cooperative solutions. Cites the inadequacy of nation-state responses to this global issue and illustrates the slow growth of awareness of environmental threats compared to military threats. Identifies global physical changes, including the destruction of the ozone layer, global warming, and biodiversity, as representative of the types of degradation that are potentially worse security threats than traditional military conflicts. Environmental Security must focus on protecting renewable resources from depletion, which can be both a direct objective and an indirect cause of conflict. Conflicts fueled by the degradation of renewable resources, population growth, and unequal resource distribution are likely to increase in frequency. Recognizes the Clinton administration for its incorporation of Environmental Security issues into National Security Policy.
 

Schrijver, Nico, "International Organization for Environmental Security", Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 20(2): 115-122. Paper presented at the international symposium, "Towards a Comprehensive System of International Security", Moscow, December, 1988. Schrijver presents three proposals, or approaches, for addressing environmental security issues through international organizations. The first is the reformist approach, which would require the rejuvenation or restructuring of existing institutions. These would include the UN Security Council, the Trusteeship Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the International Court of Justice, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, and the UN Environment Program (UNEP). The problems inherent to a reformist approach involve the need to either alter the original UN Charter or build on organizations that have proven to be ineffective in the past. The second approach requires the establishment of new organizations. These include an Environmental Security Council, an Economic Security Council, upgrading the UNEP to a specialized agency, and creating Green UN Police Forces or a Green Cross. This approach is aptly named idealistic because the formation of these organizations would need funding that does not yet exist and grant unprecedented authority to international organizations. The last approach is the pragmatic, incorporating elements of the previous two. Proposals include the revitalization of ECOSOC through a new governing board, the strengthening of the UNEP without changing the UN Charter, and the creation of an International Environmental Commissioner out of the office of the UNEP's Executive Director. Schrijver argues that these pragmatic steps combined could provide the means for collective environmental security.
 

Spector, Bertram I. "Environmental Conflicts: Potential Threats to U.S. Interests," typescript, March 1995. Focusing on the Pacific rim, the feasibility study identifies the escalating frequency of overseas environmental conflicts, their impact on US interests, and means for addressing these issues. Population pressures and transboundary pollution are both characteristic of the region and rapid industrialization contributes to the problem. The increased potential for conflict directly threatens US citizens, military personnel, and business interests in affected regions. Early detection can reduce or eliminate future risk. The proposed data base would involve the means for crisis identification, data collection, analysis, preliminary design of early warning indicators, and the identification of potential threats.
 

Spector, Sjostedt, and Zartman, "The Dynamics of Regime Building," in Negotiating International Regimes: Lessons Learned from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), eds. B. Spector, G. Sjostedt, and I.W. Zartman. London: Graham and Trotman, 1994. Analyzes the UNCED process as a prime example of how international regimes are negotiated. Asserts that UNCED succeeded in formatting an umbrella regime in the field of sustainable development that will continue into the future and spawn sub-regimes in particular environmental sectors. Summarizes the characteristics of multilateral negotiations and the basic process of regime building. Describes multilateral negotiations as: multi-party, multi-issue, characterized by coalitions and consensus, multi-role, and rule-making rather than redistributionist. Describes five behavior types for actors negotiating international regimes: drive, conduct, defend, brake, cruise. Discusses the role of flexibility in successful negotiations. Discusses the dynamics of framing key issues and the role of non-stakeholders and third party actors in providing research and analysis to aid this process. The negotiation process results in incremental clarification of national interests and objectives which eventually leads to consensus.
 

________, Laurie J. MacNamara, Richard E. Hayes, and Kenneth E. Kaizer. "Strategies and Coalition Building in International Environmental Security," typescript, January 1996. Outlines some of the major schools of thought on the meaning of environmental security and approaches to policy options. Environmental security can be defined as the protection of armed forces from environmental threats, or, more accurately, as the response to non-military environmental threats to national security. These can be both intentionally generated or unintentionally caused, but in each case environmental threats jeopardize the quality of life of a population and trigger political and social unrest. Scarcity and uneven distribution lead to environmental disputes and the frequency of such conflicts is likely to escalate in the future. Differing approaches to environmental security issues include the environmental scarcity, economic development and modernization, spillover, sectoral linkages, and leading edge models. Indicator systems, as well as preventive and containment responses are analyzed as policy options.
 

Starr , Joyce. "Water Wars." Foreign Policy (Spring 1991): pp. 17-36. Examines the "water crisis" in the Middle East and North Africa. Asserts that, despite evidence that the region is approaching dangerous water shortages and contamination, Western leaders have so far failed to treat the issue as a strategic priority. Discusses water management regimes in Middle Eastern countries, calling such regimes ineffective if they are not coupled with greater cooperation among countries. Points out the fact that waste treatment centers and desalinization plants will likely be strategic targets in future conflicts. Discusses the countries relying on the Nile for water and highlights the potential economic and political dangers Egypt could face as a result of drought or interference by upstream countries. Discusses Israel's water concerns in the West Bank and asserts that 25-40 percent of Israel's water comes from the Occupied Territories. Contends that Turkey, which has an abundance of water, can serve as a balancing force in the Middle East. Similarly, calls on the United States to play a leading role in addressing the emerging water crisis. Advocates fully tapping existing expertise within the U.S. government in the area of creating water assistance programs.
 

Ullman, Richard H. "Redefining Security." International Security 8 (Summer 1983): pp. 129-53.

Considered by many to be the seminal article in redefining the concept of "security." Seeks to shift the focus of states away from a definition of security which relies on militaristic aspects alone. Discusses the choices one makes between security and liberty, and the social and moral implications of the choice, to include; human rights versus state security, collaboration with despotic states, military aid versus economic aid, and domestic needs versus international interests. Redefines threats as an action or sequence of events that, over a short period of time, threaten to alter the quality of life within the state or to significantly narrow the state's range of policy choices. These threats can include: natural disasters, territorial and resource conflicts, and depleted supply-side resources. Proposes a fundamental shift in the conception of security, to include public education and reallocation of resources, and the roles for both governmental and nongovernmental agencies.
 

Westing, Arthur. "An Expanded Concept of International Security," in Global Resources and International Conflict: Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action, ed. Arthur H. Westing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986: pp. 85-113. Addresses (a) means for reducing the likelihood of international conflict over natural resources; and (b) environmental measures for strengthening international security. Divides the resources over which war can be fought into three categories: territorial resources, shared resources, and extra-territorial resources. Asserts that the prevention of wars waged over territorial resources (i.e., when one state invades another to capture its resources) is clearly subsumed under the broader international prohibitions on aggression and violations of territorial integrity. Notes that conflict over territorial resources can also take the form of domestic instability - for example, coups d'etat. Discusses shared resources - which include fresh waters, ocean fisheries, and the atmosphere - the their potential for causing conflict. Calls for the creation of a more comprehensive body of international law to deal with these kinds of conflicts. Extra-territorial resources include the oceans, the sea beds beneath them, outer space, and the moon. Claims that there is a significant potential for conflict over these resources as human technological capacity develops. Finally, discusses extent to which an amelioration of environmental problems would lead to a reduced threat of military conflict in the world. Advocates the "common heritage of mankind" principle -- the concept that the earth and its natural resources belong to all and must be managed for the benefit of all. Calls for restraint in the use of renewable resources and curbs on world population growth. Also outlines several steps to curb dependency on fossil fuels and non-renewable resources.
 

___________. " The Environmental Component of Comprehensive Security", Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol. 20 (2): 129-134 (1988). Paper originally presented the international symposium `Towards a Comprehensive System of International Security' Moscow, December 1988. Westing likens environmental security to political security in terms of the essential factors of maintaining national, regional, and global comprehensive security. He details two means of sustaining that security through providing for both the protection and sustained utilization of renewable resources. Protection entails avoidance of vandalism (acts of war, deforestation, etc.) and avoidance of excessive pollution. Sustained utilization requires an avoidance of consuming resources at a rate beyond long-term sustainability and avoidance of consumption altogether in cases of past abuses. Only an inflexible commitment to these rules will guarantee environmental security. The Horn of Africa is used as a example of an ecogeographical region where most nations do not adhere to international norms in avoiding vandalism or reducing pollution.
 

ENVIRONMENTAL SCARCITY MODEL

Fallenmark, Malin. "Fresh Waters as a Factor in Strategic Policy and Action," in Global Resources and International Conflict: Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action, ed. Arthur H. Westing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986: pp. 85-113. Discusses fresh water as a present and future focus of international disputes and as a factor in conflict formation. Gives examples of typical disputes. Discusses the potential for international tension resulting from problems of freshwater supply. Summarizes efforts in conflict resolution and prevention, with a focus on current progress towards an internationally agreed code of conduct. Asserts that a secured supply of water and control of river flow must be cornerstones in national planning and development. Foresees that large increases in water for irrigation will be necessary in those countries striving toward increased self-sufficiency in food production which are simultaneously facing rapid population growth. Discusses water disputes arising among states in three river basins: the Jordan (Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria), the Ganges (Bangladesh and India), and the Nile (Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan). Examines several existing conflict prevention conventions. Advocates codifying rules and norms for solving water disputes as they emerge. Discusses United Nations water management actions and international river commissions as two attempts at water conflict prevention.
 

Gleick, Peter H. "Water and Conflict: Fresh Water Resources and International Security." International Security 18 (1993): pp. 79-112. Links the competition for water as a resource to violent conflict through historical examples. As a critical factor to the quality of life, increased competition for water has produced tensions among national and sub-national groups that have led to conflicts. Water has been a source of tension when it was a military goal (95% of the Nile's runoff originates outside Egypt, but it supplies 97% of Egypt's water), a military target (destruction of Iraqi and Kuwaiti desalinization plants during the Persian Gulf War), and it has been a military means (Turkey's Attaturk dam raised protests from Syria and Iraq). Concludes that inequities in water resources and hydrologic conditions will remain a potential cause of future conflicts.
 

Gurr, Ted Robert. "On the Political Consequences of Scarcity and Economic Decline," International Studies Quarterly 29 (1985): pp. 51-75. Criticizes the relative neglect of political analysis in most of the literature on global resource scarcity and the ecological crisis. Proposes that resource scarcity creates greater material inequalities within and among societies, intensifies internal and international conflict, and causes shifts from open toward more closed an authoritarian political institutions. Cites historical and contemporary evidence in support of the argument. Contrasts national policy responses which facilitate accommodation to ecological limits with pro-growth policies. Essay seeks to qualify both the political optimism of ecological analysts and the technological optimism of the proponents of further growth.
 

Homer-Dixon, Thomas. "On the Threshold: Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict." International Security 16 (Fall 1991): pp. 76-116. Key article in theoretical literature on scarcity-conflict linkages. Focuses on how environmental crises play a role in the causes of "acute" conflict, defined as "conflict involving a substantial probability of violence", and how to improve the research methodologies used in analyses. Discusses the difficulties involved in analyzing the linkages between the environment and conflict, to include; an overemphasis on human induced changes, anecdotal writing on the links, lack of empirical data on direct causation, a prevailing "naturalistic" epistemology, the multi-disciplinary needs for analysis, and a lack of emphasis on transboundry environmental problems. Proposes a frame work to create a causal-path analysis of the linkages between the environment and conflict. Identifies the major environmental problems facing developing countries as being; greenhouse warming, ozone depletion, acid rain, deforestation, degradation of arable land, water pollution, and a depletion of fish stocks. The article further identifies the social effects of these environmental problems to be; decreased agricultural production, economic decline, population displacement, and the disruption of stable social and institutional practices. Finally, the article illustrates the types of conflicts and their objectives and scope that arise from the environmentally induced social crises.
 

Lipschutz, Ronnie D. "What Resources Will Matter? Environmental Degradation as a Security Issue." Paper presented at American Academy for the Advancement of Science Annual Symposium, 9 February 1992. Argues that environmental problems are not a primary cause of conflict and it is not useful to think of environmental degradation as a security issue. Asserts that there are some circumstances when environmental degradation might threaten the security of states, the countries most likely to be affected are likely to be in "dismal shape." Degradation will primarily affect developing countries that are already weakened by non-environmental factors and lack the flexibility to respond to environmental stresses. Degradation might contribute to a state's internal instability, but is not likely to cause international instability. Claims that resource disputes are not significant causes of international conflict, and are primarily the result of underlying tensions or hostilities that already exist. States that what scholars label "resource wars" are actually complex situations in which material conditions are simply the most visible of a larger set of causes. Argues that the tools of national security are inappropriate for addressing environmental degradation. Concludes that environmental degradation is a question of social security and social welfare affecting the lives of individuals and societies, but not a national security problem.
 

Lowi, Miriam R. "West Bank Water Resources and the Resolution of Conflict in the Middle East." Occasional Paper of the Project on Environmental Change and Acute Conflict, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Cambridge, MA, 1992. Argues that both real and perceived threats to a nation's vital resources have played a major role in Arab-Israeli conflicts. Lowi discards traditional "power analysis" in favor of an awareness of increasing insecurity among all states. Author identifies the need for a new approach that entails the recognition of the need to protect core resources from degradation and the need for states to reduce their vulnerability in terms of dependence on threatened resources. Specific circumstances link water distribution to regional stability. Israel's national goal of agricultural development has sharply restricted the water drilling rights of Arabs living in the West Bank. The highly inequitable distribution has stemmed from political rivalry and the author cites efforts to resolve allocation imbalance as critical to regional peace efforts. Recommendations for just distribution include the formation of an independent international panel of experts, approved by hboth sides, to determine and monitor just allocation of scarce resources.
 

Mathews, Jessica Tuchman. "Preserving the Global Environment." in The Future of American Foreign Policy, ed. Eugene R. Wittkopf. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994. Describes two broad political strategies for promoting collective environmental problem solving at the international level. One, the "quantum leap approach," emphasizes the immensity of the problems and urges "vast bold policy leaps" to capture attention and to galvanize support for action. The other, the "ambitious incrementalism approach," emphasizes the relatively modest steps needed to "weave environmental concerns into the fabric of mainstream economic and foreign policy." Concludes that the latter strategy is more likely to permanently change the policy context. Suggests several steps the U.S. must take to exercise a leadership role in this area in the future, such as improving its environmental productivity by reducing the use of natural resources and the consumption of environmental services per unit of economic output.
 

Naff, Thomas. "Water Scarcity, Resource Management, and Conflict in the Middle East." Paper presented at American Academy for the Advancement of Science Annual Symposium, 9 February 1992. Focuses on the water consumption and supply of the states of the Jordan river basin; i.e., Jordan, Israel, Syria, Lebanon, and the Occupied Territories. Forecasts persistent water shortages in the future since the basin will sustain 12 to 14 million people and the population of the region will exceed that number by 3 to 4 million over the next two decades. As a result, forecasts heightened external and internal competition in these countries for decreasing amounts of water. This competition will most likely take the form of internal civil disorder rather than "water wars" between states. Asserts that Israel's hydrological concerns in the Occupied Territories outweigh its ideological and security concerns since 40% of Israel's water originates in the occupied West Bank. Proposes several solutions to ameliorate water shortages, including: the creation of a basin-wide water authority and restructuring basin economies away from heavily irrigated agriculture toward other sectors like electronics, services, and light industry.
 

Opschoor, Johannes B. "North-South Trade, Resource Degradations and Economic Security", Bulletin of Peace Proposals, Vol 20 (2): 135-142 (1989). Paper presented at the international symposium; `Towards a Comprehensive System of International Security' in Moscow, December 1988. Concerns the potential for economic and political regional instability resulting from the exhaustion of natural resources by developing nations. Opschoor defines such conditions as environmental insecurity, identifies the circumstances that contribute to the phenomenon, provides examples from developing nations, and suggests means of halting the current trend. Circumstances include (1) the overexploitation of domestic, shared, and common resources by developing nations in an effort to channel "hard" currencies into failed economies and (2) ecological stress stemming from insufficient pollution control of industry causing transnational environmental damage. Example case studies from Thailand, Brazil, and Malaysia demonstrated a common tendency for developing nations to cause long-term irreparable damage to the regional environment in exchange for short-term economic gain. Means of halting trend entailed implementing patterns of resource utilization to sustain environmental, economic, and political security. These patterns would be established and maintained through global awareness, resource-saving technology, and greater regional environmental management through enhanced international institutions.
 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND MODERNIZATION MODEL

Holdren, John P. "Energy and International Security." Paper presented at American Academy for the Advancement of Science Annual Symposium, 9 February 1992. States that there are two directions of energy-security interactions: ways in which energy choices affect security problems, and ways in which security choices affect energy problems. Focuses on three issues: the potential for conflict over oil in the Persian Gulf in the context of the 1991 Gulf War, the relationship between nuclear energy and nuclear weapons, and the "energy-environment-development nexus." Concludes that many concerns other than oil drove Saddam's decision to invade Kuwait and the response of the international community. Argues that the danger of conflict over oil is dwindling over time. Proposes several arrangements to strengthen international supervision and control over nuclear energy facilities, including international inspection without warning and multinational guarding of all plutonium shipments. Asserts that the failure to address the "energy-environment-development nexus" will have adverse consequences for security. Proposes a five point energy strategy which entails: increasing the efficiency of energy end use, reducing the environmental impacts of today's energy sources, facilitating the transition to more sustainable energy options, expanding international cooperation and assistance programs, and halting the growth of the world's population at 10 billion or fewer.
 

SPILLOVER MODEL

Lipschutz, Ronnie D., and John P. Holdren. "Crossing Borders: Resource Flows, the Global Environment, and International Security." Bulletin of Peace Proposals 21 (1990): pp. 121-33.

Focuses on the threat to international security posed by the degradation of the planetary environment. Asserts that conflicts over mineral resources (including oil) have been rare in the past and are likely to be rare in the future since the costs of military action are high, the chances of succeeding in a military venture to protect access to a threatened resource are extremely low, and the alternatives to protecting access are much more promising. On the other hand, argues that large scale environmental degradation is likely to pose a grave threat to international security in the future. Asserts that the four most prominent environmental problems in this category are: (1) climate change due to "anthropogenic additions to the atmosphere's stock of infrared absorbing trace gases;" (2) contamination of the stratosphere with substances that destroy ozone; (3) acid precipitation; (4) destruction of tropical forests. Notes that countries bearing the severest impact of biogeophysical change may feel that these damages were inflicted upon them by the irresponsible actions of other nations. Concludes that "the resulting resentments can hardly fail to aggravate international tensions." Locates these conflicts within the context of growing tension between the industrial North and the less-developed South. Finally, advocates superpower cooperation to forestall such catastrophes. Calls for redirecting one third of the U.S. defense budget to conservation efforts and public works projects to alter the world's pattern of energy consumption.
 

Molvaer, Reidulf K. "Environmentally Induced Conflicts?: A Discussion Based on Studies for the Horn of Africa." Bulletin of Peace Proposals 22 (1991): pp.175-88. Seeks to determine whether environmental degradation can lead to social tension, social disruption and armed conflict. Focuses on the possibility that "people may cease to feel secure" because of factors in their environmental surroundings. Examines the situation in Somalia. Asserts that because of environmental degradation, the various pastoral groups are not able to move over vast areas as before. Consequently, competition for water and grazing lands has increased, and conflicts between these pastoral groups have intensified. Also ties pastoral roaming following environmental degradation to the 1977-78 war between Somalia and Ethiopia. Asserts that a second source of conflict in the Horn of Africa is conflict between agriculturalists and pastoralists, which arises when pastoralists are forced to abandon their traditional lands as a result of environmental degradation. The pastoralists then settle in land traditionally occupied by agriculturalists, leading to conflict between these two groups. Similarly, asserts that conflict also arises when agriculturalists or pastoralists are forced to abandon their lands and move to cities. Concludes by stating that should environmental stress and food shortages increase, more people will perceive such stresses as threats to their way of life, leading to greater environmental wars.
 

Myers, Norman. "Environment and Security." Foreign Policy 74 (Spring 1989): pp. 23-41. Focuses on the inexperience of the United States in recognizing and dealing with environmental linkages to foreign policy, and the inadequate development of the Third World as the issues which he sees to be the most prominent problems in the immediate future of the environment and political stability. Claims that Third World economic decline resulting from environmental degradation leads to limited sustainable growth, with important ramifications for the U.S. - dampening of U.S. exports, limiting loan repayments, and destabilizing political systems that could lead to civil turmoil and violent conflict. Case studies cited include deforestation in the Philippines, land degradation in El Salvador, Middle East water deficits, and rapid population growth in Mexico. After illustrating his thesis with these several case studies, proposes several steps which should be taken by the U.S. in dealing with the environment as a security issue, including; a basic shift in focus by the U.S. to better understand environmental and political linkages, the diversion of a greater portion of foreign assistance towards technologies dealing with environmental concerns and away from traditional military activities, and environmental criteria in international lending institutions' activities.
 

SECTORAL LINKAGES MODEL

Gizewski, Peter. "Data Survey: Population, Environment, and Acute Conflict." Fast Track Project, The Peace and Conflict Studies Program, University of Toronto and the American Association for the Advancement of Science, March 1995. Lists relevant data sources in five areas: 1) Information detailing the physical characteristics of various regions and the countries occupying them; 2) Data that reflect human impacts on the environment; 3) Data indicating national development; 4) Information that taps the socio-political character of states and their operation, and 5) Data on interstate and intrastate conflict.
 

LEADING EDGE MODEL

Bosnjakovic, Branko. "Environmental Issues and Political Conflicts in Central and Eastern Europe: A Two-Way Road." Paper presented at "GeoPolitics of the Environment and the New World Order: Limits, Conflicts, Insecurity?" SORISTEC, Chantilly, France, January 1993.

Discusses transboundry environmental problems in Eastern Europe as being perpetuated by a lack of monitoring and reporting mechanisms, and that future cooperation on environmental issues is difficult in the area because of social and political conflicts. Gives areas of concern to include: maritime pollution and degradation, air pollution, hazardous wastes, nuclear risks, environmental damage at former Soviet military installations, and the damage brought about by military conflicts. Uses a matrix to display the relationship between political tensions and a negative environmental impact in specific areas. Argues for a resolution of political tensions as the most advantageous solution to Eastern Europe's transboundry environmental problems. Sees the role of western countries as that of a stabilizing force between military rivals in the area to allow for a dialogue between political rivals, and also to provide the technology needed to directly impact the environmental concerns in these areas.
 

Goldstone, Jack A. "Imminent Political Conflicts Arising from China's Environmental Crises." Occasional Paper of the Project on Environmental Change and Acute Conflict, University of Toronto and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, December 1992. Focuses on China's massive peasant population and its negatively disproportionate amount of arable land as the overwhelming environmental problem facing that country today, as it has throughout its history. The environmental crises of air and water pollution, soil erosion, and depleted resources all stem from this basic imbalance. Discusses the vulnerabilities of the current Chinese state which has its roots in these environmental and economic crises. These vulnerabilities include; a fractured Part leadership, rifts between Party and non-Party elites, a decline in state control of societal events, and diminishing support in its peasant and worker base. Sees the imminent collapse of Party control in China, and suggests that rapid democratization while the Party leadership still has some control, may be the only solution to China's future crises.
 

Smil, Vaclav. "Environmental Change as a Source of Conflict and Economic Losses in China." Occasional Paper of the Project on Environmental Change and Acute Conflict, University of Toronto and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, December 1992. Recognizes that although the primary causes of internal conflict in China to be the struggles over internal control and the direction of the countries economic policies, there is a growing emphasis on environmental degradation as another (if not underlying) source of conflict. Focuses on the newer environmental challenges of water shortages, and industrial and agricultural pollution brought on by a highly concentrated and localized population growth, combined with the existing problems of deforestation and soil erosion, as the source of numerous conflicts and economic strife. Gives examples of conflicts (familial, city, rural, and provincial) and costs (environmental pollution and ecosystemic degradation) that represent the current and future areas of conflict in China. Further sees no hope in the future without a massive increase in literacy and educational opportunities within the population and a decrease in the demand on resources from the population.
 

Source: NATO-ECHS. Web Site Administrator is available via e-mail at: webstar@echs.ida.org
 
 

Appendix D.2
 

This bibliography contributed by Renat Perelet from a June 1998 review on the security dimension of the environment.
 

Bjorkbom, L. and U. Svedin, 1991, 1991, Environmental security and the long-term European situation. In: B.Huldt and G.Herof (eds). Yearbook 1990-91: Towards a new European seciruty order, The Swedish Instoitute of International Affairs.
 

Brock, L., 1991, Peace through parks: the environment on the peace research agenda, Journal of Peace Research, 28,4, p.418.
 

Brock, L., 1992, Security through defending the environment: an illusion? In: E. Boulding (ed). New agena for peace research: conflict and security reexamined, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO, pp.79-102.
 

Brock, Lothar, 1997. The environment and security: conceptual and theoretical issues, In: "Conflict and the Environment". Ed. by N.P.Gleditsch in colloboration with L.Brock, T.Homer-Dixon, R.Perelet, E. Vlachos. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-4768-4. p.20
 

Buzan, B., 1992, Environment as a security issue, Geopolitical Perspectives on Environmental Security. The Studies and Research center on Environment Policies-GERPE, Universite Laval, Quebec, Cahier 92-05.
 

Dulby, S., 1992, Ecopolitical discourse:"environmental security" and geography, Progress in Human Geography, 16:4, p. 504.
 

Daly, H., and J.Cobb Jr., 1990, For the common good, Green Pront Publichars, UK.
 

Doos, B.R., 1991, Environmental issues requiring international action, RR-91-16, IIASA.
 

The Earth Summit: a vision shared, 1992, An interview with J.-C.Faby, Director of the UNCED New York office, Development Forum 20, 3, p.3.
 

Environmental security panel decides on two case studies, 1992, Delta 3,1, pp.6-7.
 

Evteev, S., P.Perelet, V. Voronin, 1989, Ecological security of sustainable development. In: J. Renninger (ed), The future role of the United nations in an interdependent world, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, UNITAR.
 

Galtung, J., 1982, Environment, development and military activity: towards alternative security doctrines, Universitetforlaget, Oslo.
 

Gebremedhin, N., S.Lodgaard, J.Opschoor, and R.Perelet, 1989. Environmental security, PRIO/UNEP.
 

Gleick, P., 1992, Effects of climate change on shared fish water resources. In: I.Mintzer (ed), Confronting climate change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 132.
 

Global Environmental Change and Human Security Project. International Human Dimensions Program on Global Environmental Change. Draft Science Plan. April 1998, p.11.
 

Homer-Dixon, T., 1990, Environmental change and security, Delta, Newsletter of the Canadian global change program, 1,2.
 

Homer-Dixon, T., 1991, On the threshold: environmental changes as causes of acute conflicct, International Security, 16, 2, pp.76-116.
 

Homer-Dixon, T., 1992, Environmental change and acute conflict, International conflict, 2, p.91.
 

Homer-Dixon, T., J. Bouywell and J. Rathjens,1993, Environmental change and violent conflict, Scientific American, February, pp.38-44.
 

Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security Issues, 1982, Pan, London.
 

Jacobson, H. and M.Price, 1990, A framework for research on the human dimensions of global environmental change, ISSC.
 

Keyfita, N., 1991, Population and development within the ecosphere: one view of the literature, IIASA, RR-91-14.
 

Lipschutz, R., 1997. Environmental Conflict and Environmental Determinism: The Relative Importance of Social and Natural Factors, In: "Conflict and the Environment". Ed. by N.P.Gleditsch in colloboration with L.Brock, T.Homer-Dixon, R.Perelet, E. Vlachos. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-4768-4, p.44.
 

Lodgaard, S., 1992, Competing schemes for Europe: the CSCE, NATO and the European union, Security Dialogue, 23,3, pp.65-66.
 

Lodgaard, Sverre, 1990. 'Environmental Conflict Resolution', paper presented at the UNEP meeting on 'Environmental Conflict Resolution', Nairobi, 30 March.
 

Lonergan, S., 1992, Redefining security, Delta, 3,2, p.8.
 

MacNeil, J., 1990, The greening of international relations, International Journal (Canadian Institute of International Affairs), XIV, p.5.
 

Maier-Rigaurd, G., 1991, Ecological economics and global change, Institute fuer Europaeische Umweltpolitik, Bonn.
 

Mansfield, William H., III, 1992. 'Editorial', Our Planet, vol.4, p.2.
 

Meadows, G., 1992, Beyond the limits to growth. In: Global environment and local action, The Club of Rome Conference in Fukuoka, Kyushu, May 12-14.
 

Moss, R., 1991, Environmental security? The illogic of centralized state responses to environmental threats, Geopolitical Perspectives of Environmental Security, The Studies and Research center on Environmental policies-GERPE, Universite Laval , Quebec, Cahier 92-05.
 

NATO, 1991, Rome declaration on peace and cooperation, NATO Review, 39,6.
 

Nuscheler, F., 1991, Refugees flooding islands of affluence, Development Forum, UN, May-June, p.19.
 

Perelet, R., 1988, Environmental diplomacy, International Life (USSR), 11.
 

Perelet, R., 1991a, Managing gloibak change: the prospects for the 1992 UN Conference on environment and development, Seminar Report on Global Change and Finland, Research Reports 7/90, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs, Helsinki, pp. 132-156.
 

Perelet, R., 1991b, Strengthening the role of the UN in furthering global security, environmental protection and sustainable development, Doc, PA 33/9/12/USSR E only, 33rd Plenary Assembly, World Federation of UN Associations, Barcelona, 18-23 November 1991, 4 pp.
 

Perelet, R., and V.Yakimetz, 1992, Environmental parity (in Russian), Ecological weekly Spasenie, 1, 17 January.
 

Perelet, R., 1994, The environment as a security issue. In: The Environment: towards a sustainable future, ed. by Dutch committee for long-term environmental policy, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 147-173.
 

Peterson, N., 1988, Whence the threat to what or ehom? Seciruty and threat concepts old and new, Institute of Political Science, University of Aarhus, Nov. 1988,p.6.
 

Pirages, D.C., 1992, The greening of peace research, Journal of Peace Research, 28,2, p.132.
 

Renner, M., 1989, Forging environmental alliances, Worldwatch, 2, 6, November-December, p.16.
 

Shevarnadze, E., 1989, Ecology and diplomacy (in Russian), Literaturnaya Gazeta, 22 November.
 

Soroos, M., 1989, Beyond sovereignty: the challenge of global policy, University of South Carolina Press.
 

Soroos, M., 1990, The challenge of global policy, Journal of Peace Research, 27, 2, p.114.
 

Soroos, M., 1992, Why I am insecure about environmental security, Geopilitical Perspectives on Environmental Security, The studies and Research center on Environmental Policies-GEPRE, Universite-Laval, Quebec, Cahier 92-05.
 

South Centre, The, August 1992, Non-alignment in the 1990s: contributions to an economic agenda, pp.2-27.
 

South Centre, The, October 1992, Enhancing the economic role of the United nations, p.19.
 

Stern, P., O. Young and D. Druckman (eds), 1992, Global environmental change: understanding the human dimensions, National Academy Press, Washington DC.
 

Strong, M. 1989, Interview, Options, IIASA, September, p.13.
 

Strong, M. 1992, The passage from Rio, Development Forum, 20, 4,p.3.
 

Tolba, M., 1984a, Closing statement to the 12th session of the UNEP Governing Council, 29 May, UNEP, Nairobi.
 

Tolba, M., 1984b, Address to the World Commission on environment and development, Geneva, 1 October 1989, Information/84/19, Na.84-2412.
 

Tolba, M., 1990, The environmental dimension to world peace, Infoterrs Bulletin, XII, 2, 1990.
 

Tolba, M., O. El-Kholy, E. El-Hinnawi, M. Holdgate, D. McMichael and R. Munn, 1992, The world environment 1972-1992: two decades of challenge, UNEP, Chapman & Hall, London.
 

Transnationals, 1992, 4, 2 July.
 

UN, 1987, UN/A/C.2/42/L.34, 30 October.
 

UN, 1988, UN/A/43/915/Add.7, 14 December.
 

UNEP, 1985, UNEP Press 85/9, 14 May.
 

UNEP, 1985, UNEP/GC.17/9, 30 November, pp.9-10.
 

WCED, 1987, Our common fiture, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
 

Westing, A. (ed), 1984, Environmental warfare, SIPRI.
 

Westing, A. (ed), 1986, Global resources and inernational conflicts, SIPRI.
 

Westing, A. (ed), 1988, Cultural norms, war, and the environment, SIPRI.
 

World Resources Institute, December, Accounts overdue: natural resource depreciation in Costa Rica.
 

Young, O., 1989, International cooperation: building regimes for natural resouces and the environment, Cornell University Press.
 
 

Appendix D. 3 Additional references identified during literature survey for initial or trial definitions
 

Thompson, Michael. "The New World Disorder: Is Environmental Security the Cure" Mountain Research and Development vol 18,2 May 1998 University of California Press for the United Nations University and the International Mountain Society.
 

Brown, Lester R. 1997 "The Agricultural Link: How Environmental Deterioration Could Disrupt Economic Progress"Worldwatch Paper 136. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.
 

Kasperson, Jeanne X.; Kasperson, Roger E.; B.L. Turner II. 1995 "Regions At Risk: Comparisons of Threatened Environments." UNU Studies on Critical Environmental Regions. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.
 

Flavin, Christopher, and Tunali, Odil. 1996 "Climate of Hope: New Strategies for Stabilizing the World's Atmosphere." Worldwatch Paper 130. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
 

Brown, Lester R.; Flavin, Christopher; French, Hillary. 1998 "State of the World." Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute.
 

Thompson, Michael. "The New World Disorder: Is Environmental Security the Cure?" Mountain Research and Development. Vol. 18, Number 2. May 1998. University of California Press. pp. 117-122.
 

Environmental Change and Security Project Report. "Environment and Security Debates and Introduction." The Woodrow Wilson Center. Issue 1, Spring 1995. Washington, D.C.
 

Environmental Change and Security Project Report. "Environment and Security Debates and Introduction." The Woodrow Wilson Center. Issue 2, Spring 1996. Washington, D.C.
 

Environmental Change and Security Project Report. "Environment and Security Debates and Introduction." The Woodrow Wilson Center. Issue 3, Spring 1997. Washington, D.C.
 

Committee on Toxicology National Research Council. "Review of Acute Human Toxicity Estimate For Selected Chemical Warfare Agents." National Academy Press 1997. Washington, D.C.
 

Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict. "Preventing Deadly Conflict." Carnegie Corporation of New York. December 1997. Washington, D.C.
 

Environmental Diplomacy. "The Environment and U.S. Foreign Policy." U.S. Department of State. April 1997. Washington, D.C.
 

Perry, William J. Envirosense. An Annual Report From the DOD to the President and the Congress of the U.S. on Environmental Security. February 1996. Internet.
 

Goodman, Sherri W. DUSD (ES). "Environmental Security Mission" 1997
 

"Futures Research Quarterly." Spring 1997, Volume 13, Number 1. World Future Society. Bethesda, MD.
 

Dalby Simon, "The Dilemmas of Environmental Security: Geopolitical Discourse and Ecospheric Integrity." Department of Geography, Caleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
 

Norman R. Eder; Kenneth L. Rosengaum; James Hartman and Shin, Eung Bai. "The International Environmental Role of the U.S. Army: Policy and Practice." Sept. 1993.
 

Audrish, Mitchell R. "The Security Implications of Eurasian Environmental Problems: An Exploration of the Environmental Dimensions of National Security." McLean, VA. 1993.
 

"Population/Environment Equations: Implications for Future Security." Conference of International Consortium for the Study of Environmental Security." Tufts University, Meldford, MA. 1994.
 
 

Appendix D. 4 Recent Conferences related to ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY
 

Conversion and Ecology

25-28 Apr 1997 : Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

Contact: Dr. C Gibbons, EURENG Ltd., 10 South Drive, Harwell, Didcot, OX1 1 0PT, Oxon UK (Fax: +44 1235 861424/e-mail: carle.gibbons@aeat.co.uk)

Co-director: Prof. W.M. Zadorsky, USUchT, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine

960888
 

Public Health Consequences of Environmental Pollution: Priorities and Solutions May 1997 : Lviv, Ukraine Contact: Dr. P Scheff, University of Illinois, Great Lakes Ctr for Occupational & Environmental Safety & Health, School of Public Health, M/C 922, 121 West Taylor Street Chicago, IL 60612-7260, USA (Fax: +1 312 413 736 9/e-mail: pscheff@uic.edu)

Co-director: Dr. P Hrytsyshyn, Ukrainian Branch World Laboratory, Lviv, U

kraine 961367
 

Biosensors for Direct Monitoring of Environmental Pollutants in Field

4-8 May 1997 : Smolenice, Slovak Republic

Contact: Dr. D.P. Nikolelis, University of Athens, Chem. Dept., Lab of Analytical Chemistry, Panepistimiopolis-Kouponia, 15771 Athens, Greece (Fax: ++7 23 16 08/ e-mail: analyt@arnold.pchem.uoa.ariadne-t.gr) Co-director: Dr. M.A. Trojanowicz, University of Warsaw, Poland 960077
 

Scientific & Technological Problems of Removal from Service of Stationary & Transportation Units Equipped with Nuclear Power Reactors 19-23 May 1997 : St. Petersburg, Russia. Contact: Mr. J. Van der Steen, KEMA Nederland B.V, P.O. Box 9035, Utrechtseweg 310, 6800 ET Arnhem, The Netherlands (Fax +31 26 442 3635/e-mail: j.vandersteen@mta9.kema.nl) Co-director: Prof. I. Gorynin, Central Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia 961068
 

Environmental Pollution in the Ural Mountains 25-29 May 1997 : Magnitogorsk, Russia

Contact: Dr. R Wilson, Harvard University, Dept. of Physics, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA (Fax: +1 617 495 0416/ e-mail: wilson@huhepl.harvard.edu) Co-director: Dr. V.D. Cherchintsev, Acad.of Mining & Metallurgy, Magnitogorsk, Russia 961298
 

Biochemical Cycling in Marine Sediments. 30 Aug-3 Sep 1997 : Hel, Poland. Contact: Prof. J.S. Gray, University of Oslo, Dept. of Biology, Section of Marine Zoology and Chemistry, P.O. Box 1064, Blindern 0316 Oslo Norway (Fax: +47 22 85 44 38/e-mail: j.s.gray@bio.uio.no) Co-director: Prof. A Szaniawska, Gdansk University, Poland 960883
 

Water Competition and Efficient Use: The Role of Targets 22-25 Sep 1997 : Eger, Hungary

Contact: Prof. FL Brown, University of New Mexico at Albuquerque, International Water Res Assn, 1915 Roma NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131-1436 USA (Fax: +1 505 277 9405/e-mail: flbrown@unm.edu) Co-director: Prof. L. Somlyody, Budapest University of Technology, Hungary 961093
 

Managing Environmental Degradation : Dialogue, Cooperation, Data Sharing 21-25 Jun 1997 : Budapest, Hungary. Contact: Prof. T. Naff, Univ. of Pennsylvania, 847 Williams Hall, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305, USA (Fax: +1 215 747 6211/e-mail: tnaff@sas.upenn.edu). Co-director: Dr. A.R. Herman, Nat. Tech. Inform. Centre & Library, Budapest, Hungary960899
 

Ocular Radiation Risk Assessment in Population Exposed to Environmental Radiation Contamination

29 Jul - 1 Aug 1997 : Kyiv, Ukraine. Contact: Prof. B.V. Worgul, Columbia University, Eye Radiation & Environmental Research Lab, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032 USA (Fax: +1 212 305 6749/e-mail: bvw1@columbia.edu). Co-director: Mr. Y.I. Kundiev, Kyiv Research Inst. For Occupational Health, Kyiv, Ukraine 961308
 

Sustainable Management of Transboundary Water Courses : Theory and Practice (Eastern and Western European Perspectives) September 1997 : Moscow, Russia. Contact: Prof. T Waelde, University of Dundee, Centre for Petroleum Mineral & Natural Resources Law and Policy, Dundee DD1 4HN UK (Fax: +44 1382 322 578) Co-director: Dr. S. Vinogradov, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia 961301
 

Environmental Change, Adaptation and Security Autumn 1997 : Budapest, Hungary. Contact: Prof. S Lonergan, University of Victoria, Department of Geography, P.O. Box 3050, Victoria, BC V8W 3P5 Canada (Fax: +1 604 595 0403/e-mail: lonergan@uvic.ca)Co-director: Dr. S. Kerekes, Technical University of Budapest, Hungary 961305 20
 

The NATO Science Program provides assistance for scientific collaboration between NATO-country scientists and between NATO-country scientists and scientists in Cooperation Partner (CP) countries (the Commonwealth of Independent States and countries of Central and Eastern Europe).
 

Support is available for collaboration between NATO-country scientists in any scientific area for Collaborative Research Grants, or to organize Advanced Study Institutes. Support for collaboration between NATO-country and CP-country scientists is PRIMARILY BUT NOT EXCLUSIVELY IN THE PRIORITY AREAS outlined below. The possibilities of support for collaboration between NATO and CP-country scientists are for Collaborative Research Grants, Linkage Grants, Expert Visit Grants, and grants to organize Advanced Research Workshops and Advanced Study Institutes.
 

Further information and application forms for the activities noted above are available at the NATO science web site - address: http://www.nato.int/science. NATO Scientific Affairs Division, B-1110 Brussels, Belgium. fax: 32-2-707 4232 e-mail: science@hq.nato.int. Also see Enid Austin, Information Coordinator, NATO Scientific Affairs Division, B-1110 Brussels, Belgium. Fax: 32-2 707 4232. E-mail: science@hq.nato.int
 

Florini, M. Ann and P.J. Simmons. 1998. The New Security Thinking: A Review of the North American Literature. New York: Rockefelloer Brothers Fund.
 

Levy, Marc A. "Is the Environment a National Security Issue?" International Security 20,3 (Winter 1995/96), 35-62.
 

Levy, Marc A. "Time for a Third Wave of Environment and Security Scholarship?" Environmental Change and Security Project, No. 1 (Spring 1995), pp. 44-46.
 

Simmons, P.J. "Environmental Security." Entry in forthcoming Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy, R.J.B. Jones, Ed.
 

Simmons, P.J. "The New Security Thinking: A Review of the North American Literature" with Ann Florini, forthcoming in book published by Japan Center for International Exchange; and reprinted as an occasional paper of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund Project on World Security, 1988.
 

Simmons, P.J. "Environment and Security: Core Ideas and U.S. Government Activities" with Geoffrey Dabelko. SAIS Review, January 1997.

Environmental Security Study - Table of Content