The previous section explored the status of United Nations doctrine regarding environmental damage caused by UN-directed and other military forces. The concept of environmental security also includes environmental damage caused by non-military sources that could lead to conflict.

NATO has recently released a report entitled Environment & Security in an International Context that stressed the key role of international agreements in the prevention of conflicts due to environmental stress.

To document the status of international agreements that address environmental security, a list of threats was drawn from the previous Millennium Project report Environmental Security: Emerging International Definitions, Perceptions, and Policy Considerations and matched with the appropriate international treaty, convention, and/or protocol. The results are listed below. A listing of applicable international instruments appears in Volume II of this report.

Examples of Environmental Security Threats

1. Ozone layer depletion
2. Global climate change due to greenhouse gas emission (rising sea level, changing rain distribution)
3. Radioactive waste management; nuclear waste storage tanks leakage
4. Radioactive spills from leaking nuclear submarines
5. Nuclear bomb tests
6. Accidents in nuclear plants; low radiation from accidents occurring in old nuclear power-plants
7. Environmental impact of war such as the impact of bombing, and use of landmines and chemical and/or biological weapons
8. Environmental modification during war
9. Spills from stockpiles of "old weapons"
10. Oil spill and pollution
11. Natural disasters: earthquakes, floods, storms, volcanic activities, tornado and hurricanes
12. Food security (ex. Famines in Somalia and potentially North Korea may induce migration, disease and war)
13. Water scarcity and pollution including ground water contamination
14. Increasing international river usage
15. Soil erosion
16. Salinization
17. Deforestation
18. Desertification
19. Human migration as cause of environmental security such as settlement onto hazardous environments (river basin, coastal flood plains, and earthquake-prone zones) and onto ecologically sensitive zones (certain forest, desert, wetland and marine environments)
20. Human migration as effect of environmental stress
21. Human population growth
22. Loss of biodiversity
23. Industrial development; Industrial contamination of air and oceans
24. Fishery depletion due to over-fishing
25. Forest fires like those in Indonesia, Australia, Amazonian and Mediterranean countries
26. Transplantation of alien species into new ecosystems
27. New, re-emergent and drug-resistant diseases
28. Disposal of hazardous/toxic wastes
29. Poverty; growing gap between rich and poor
30. Increasing intensive use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and detergents
31. Destruction of coral reefs
32. Artificial genetic pollution

Environmental Security Threats Treaties, Conventions, and Protocols
Figure 4

1. Ozone layer depletion	In Force: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ’85 Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer ’85
2. Global climate change due to greenhouse gas emission (rising sea level, changing rain distribution)	In Force: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ’79  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ’92  Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboudary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes ’99 Not in Force: December 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change  Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European Nations)
3. Radioactive waste management; Nuclear waste storage tanks leakage	In Force: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ’89  Convention on Nuclear Safety ’94  Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident ’86  Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency ’86 (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ‘72  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations) Not in Force: Convention on Civil liability for Damages Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European Nations)
4. Radioactive spills from leaking nuclear submarines	In Force:  Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident ’86  Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency ’86 (If threatening the marine environment) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on the High Seas ’58  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations)
5. Accidents in nuclear plants; low radiation from accidents occurring in old nuclear power-plants	In Force: Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency ’86  Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident ’86  Convention on Nuclear Safety ’94 (If threatening biodiversity) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
6. Nuclear bomb tests	In Force: Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water ’63  (if done in the Antarctic) The Antarctic Treaty ’59  (if done on the High Seas) Convention on the High Seas ’58 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage’72  Not in Force: Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European Nations) Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-ban Treaty ’96
7. Environmental impact of war such as the impact of bombing, and use of landmines and chemical and/or biological weapons	In Force: (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapons, and on their destruction ’72  Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production , Stockpiling and the use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction ’93 Protocol 1 to the Geneva Conventions ’77
8. Environmental modification caused by war	General In Force: Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques ’76  Protocol 1 to the Geneva Conventions ’77  Not in Force: Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European Nations)  Effects on atmosphere, ozone layer and climate change In Force: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ’85  Montreal Protocol on Substance that deplete the Ozone Layer ’85  Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ’79  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ’92  Not in Force: Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Connection on Climate change ’98  Water pollution In Force:  Convention on the Protection and use of Transboundary Watercourse and International Lakes (European Nations) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Convention on the High Seas ’58 Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations) Effects on biodiversity In Force:  Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage '72  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as waterfowl Habitat ’71  Dumping of wastes In Force:  Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ’89
9. Spills from stockpiles of environmentally dangerous "old weapons"	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if bacteriological or Toxin) Convention on the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapons, and on their destruction ’72  Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production , Stockpiling and the use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction ’93 (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72  Not in Force: Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European Nations)
10. Oil Pollution such as oil spills and leakage	In Force: (if threatening biodiversity) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (If threatening to cultural and natural heritage) The Convention on the Protection of World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage  (If threatening to the marine environment) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships ’73 (does not apply to warships)  International Convention of the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by oil (does not include naval ships)  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations) International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation ’90 (does not apply to warships )
11. Natural disasters: Earthquakes, Floods, Storms, Volcanic activities, Tornado and Hurricanes	In Force: (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72  (if threatening bio-diversity) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Not in Force: (if causing industrial accidents) Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents ’92
12. Food Security (ex. Famine in Somalia and potentially North Korea)	In Force: (if caused by loss of bio-diversity) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if caused by over fishing) Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas ’58  International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa ’94  Not in Force:  (if caused by warfare) Protocol 1 to the Geneva Conventions ’77
13. Water security: sufficient and secured access to water	In Force: International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification Particularly in Africa ’94  Convention on the Protection and use of Transboundary Watercourse and International Lakes (European Nations) (if sea water is the source of drinking water) Protocol to the 1979 convention to the international convention for the preventing pollution from ships’78  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations)
14. Increasing international river usage	In Force: Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourse and International Lakes (European Nations)
15. Soil erosion	In Force: International Tropical Timber Agreement ’83  International Tropical Timber Agreement ’94  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa ’94 (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
16. Salinization	In Force:  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82
17. Deforestation	In Force: International Tropical Timber Agreement ’83  International Tropical Timber Agreement ’94  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ’92  Not in Force: Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Connection on Climate change ’98
18. Desertification	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa ’94  (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72
19. Human Migration as cause of environmental security such as settlement onto hazardous environments (river basin, coastal flood plains, and earthquake-prone zones) and onto ecologically sensitive zones (certain forest, desert, wetland and marine environments)	In Force: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat ’71  International Convention to Combat Desertification in Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa ’94 Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72
20. Human Migration as effect of environmental stress	In Force: if migration is forced by radioactive contamination Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency ’86  Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident ’86  Convention on Nuclear Safety ’94 if forced by other kinds of environmental contamination Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological and Toxin Weapons, and on their Destruction ’72  Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production , Stockpiling and the use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction ’93  Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ’89 Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques  Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ’79  Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes ’88  Not in Force: Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents ’92
21. Human population growth	In Force: Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas ’58  ( If threatening biodiversity) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92
22. Loss of bio-diversity	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ’73  (if threatening natural and cultural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72  Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas ’58  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations) (if caused by oil pollution) Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships ’73 (’78)  International Convention of the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil  Not in Force: Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European Nations)
23. Industrial development; industrial contamination of air, water, soil	In Force: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ’89  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution ’79  United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ’92 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Connection on Climate Change ’98  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations) Not in Force: Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting from Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93 (European nations) Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents ’92
24. Fishery depletion due to  over-fishing	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas ’58 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82
25. Forest fires (like those in Indonesia, Australia, Amazonian and Mediterranean countries)	In Force: (If threatening bio-diversity) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (If threatening cultural and natural heritage) The Convention on the Protection of World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage ‘72
26. Transplantation of alien species into new ecosystems	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ’73  (If threatening cultural and natural heritage) The Convention on the Protection of World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72
27. New re-emergent and drug-resistant diseases
28. Disposal of hazardous/toxic wastes	In Force: Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ’89  (If radioactive) Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident ’86  (If underwater and threatening to the marine environment) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  Not in Force: Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Resulting Activities Dangerous to the Environment ’93
29. Poverty; growing gap between rich and poor
30. Increasing intensive use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and detergents	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  (if threatening lives of natural heritage) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage ‘72  (If threatening the marine environment) Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas’58  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations)
31. Destruction of coral reefs	In Force: Convention on Biological Diversity ’92  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ’82  The Convention on the Protection of World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage ’72  (if caused by oil pollution) International Convention of the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil  Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources ’74 (European Nations)
32. Artificial Genetic Pollution	In Force: (Article 15) Convention on Biological Diversity ’92